NonsoNelch Blog

The levels of processing model of memory (Craik and Lockhart, 1972) was put forward partly as a result of the criticism leveled at the multi-store model . Instead of concentrating on the stores/structures involved (i.e. short term memory & long term memory ), this theory concentrates on the processes involved in memory. Unlike the multi-store model it is a non-structured approach. The basic idea is that memory is really just what happens as a result of processing information. Psychologists Craik and Lockhart propose that memory is just a by-product of the depth of processing of information and there is no clear distinction between short term memory and long term memory. Craik defined depth as "the meaningfulness extracted from the stimulus rather than in terms of the number of analyses performed upon it.” (1973, p. 48) We can process information in 3 ways: Shallow Processing

Atkinson’s and Shiffrin’s (1968) multi-store model was extremely successful in terms of the amount of research it generated. However, as a result of this research, it became apparent that there were a number of problems with their ideas concerning the characteristics of short-term memory. Building on this research, Baddeley and Hitch (1974) developed an alternative model of short-term memory which they called working memory (see fig 1). Baddeley and Hitch (1974) argue that the picture of short-term memory ( STM ) provided by the Multi-Store Model is far too simple.  According to the Multi-Store Model , STM holds limited amounts of information for short periods of time with relatively little processing.  It is a unitary system. This means it is a single system (or store) without any subsystems.  Working Memory is not a unitary store.

Multi Store Model of Memory - Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968. The multi store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968) is a classic model of memory. It is sometimes called the modal model or the dual process model. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) suggest that memory is made up of a series of stores (see below) The multi store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968) describes memory in terms of information flowing through a system. Information is detected by the sense organs and enters the sensory memory . If attended to this information enters the short term memory . Information from the STM is transferred to the long-term memory only if that information is rehearsed. If rehearsal does not occur, then information is forgotten, lost from short term memory through the processes of displacement or decay. Sensory Memory • Duration: ¼ to ½ second • Capacity: all sensory experience (v. larger

Theoretically, the capacity of long term memory could be unlimited, the main constraint on recall being accessibility rather than availability. Duration might be a few minutes or a lifetime.  Suggested encoding modes are semantic (meaning) and visual (pictorial) in the main but can be acoustic also. Bahrick et al (1975) investigated what they called very long term memory (VLTM). Nearly 400 participants aged 17 – 74 were tested.  There were various tests including:  A free recall test, where participants tried to remember names of people in a graduate class. A photo recognition test, consisting of 50 pictures.  A name recognition test for ex-school friends. Results of the study showed that participants who were tested within 15 years of graduation were about 90% accurate in identifying names and faces. After 48 years they were accurate 80% for verbal and 70% visual.  Free recall was worse. After 15 years it was 60% and after 48 years it was 30% accurate.

Short term memory has three key aspects: 1. limited capacity (only about 7 items can be stored at a time) 2. limited duration (storage is very fragile and information can be lost with distraction or passage of time) 3. encoding (primarily acoustic, even translating visual information into sounds). There are two ways in which capacity is tested, one being span, the other being recency effect. Miller’s (1956) Magic number 7 (plus or minus two) provides evidence for the capacity of short term memory. Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory.  This idea was put forward by Miller (1956) and he called it the magic number 7. He though that short term memory could hold 7 (plus or minus 2 items) because it only had a certain number of “slots” in which items could be stored. However, Miller didn’t specify the amount of information that can be held in each slot. Indeed, if we can “chunk” information together we can store

Memory is the process of maintaining information over time .” (Matlin, 2005) “ Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in order to use this information in the present ’ (Sternberg, 1999). Memory is the term given to the structures and processes involved in the storage and subsequent retrieval of information. Memory is essential to all out lives. Without a memory of the past, we cannot operate in the present or think about the future. We would not be able to remember what we did yesterday, what we have done today or what we plan to do tomorrow.  Without memory we could not learn anything. Memory is involved in processing vast amounts of information. This information takes many different forms, e.g. images, sounds or meaning. For psychologists the term memory covers three important aspects of information processing: 1. Memory Encoding Wh

Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud (1916-1917).  Freud believed that people could be cured by making conscious their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining “insight”. The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e. make the unconscious conscious.  Psychoanalysis is commonly used to treat depression and anxiety disorders. It is only having a cathartic (i.e. healing) experience can the person be helped and "cured". Psychoanalysis Assumptions · Psychoanalytic psychologists see psychological problems as rooted in the unconscious mind. · Manifest symptoms are caused by latent (hidden) disturbances. · Typical causes include unresolved issues during development or repressed trauma. · Treatment focuses on bringing th

The medical model of abnormal psychology treats mental disorders in the same way as a broken arm, i.e. there is thought to be a physical cause. Supporters of the medical model consequently consider symptoms to be outward signs of the inner physical disorder and believe that if symptoms are grouped together and classified into a ‘ syndrome ’ the true cause can eventually be discovered and appropriate physical treatment administered. Assumptions Behaviors such as hallucinations are 'symptoms' of mental illness as are suicidal ideas or extreme fears such as phobias about snakes and so on.  Different illnesses can be identified as 'syndromes', clusters of symptoms that go together and are caused by the illness. These symptoms lead the psychiatrist to make a 'diagnosis' for example 'this patient is suffering from a severe psychosis, he is suffering from the medical conditi

Humanistic therapies evolved in the USA in the 1950s.  Carl Rogers proposed that therapy could be simpler, warmer and more optimistic than that carried out by behavioral or psychodynamic psychologists. His view differs sharply from the psychodynamic and behavioral approaches in that he suggested that clients would be better helped if they were encouraged to focus on their current subjective understanding rather than on some unconscious motive or someone else's interpretation of the situation. Rogers strongly believed that in order for a client's condition to improve therapists should be warm, genuine and understanding.  The starting point of the Rogerian approach to counseling and psychotherapy is best stated by Rogers (1986) himself. " It is that the individual has within himself or herself vast resources for self-understanding, for altering his or her self-concept, attitudes and self-directed behavior - and that these re

Holmes and Rahe (1967) developed a questionnaire called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) for identifying major stressful life events. Each one of the 43 stressful life events was awarded a Life Change Unit depending on how traumatic it was felt to be by a large sample of participants. A total value for stressful life events can be worked out by adding up the scores for each event experienced over a 12 month period. If a person has less the 150 life change units they have a 30% chance of suffering from stress. 150 - 299 life change units equates to a 50% chance of suffering from stress. Over 300 life units means a person has an 80% chance of developing a stress related illness. Social Readjustment Rating Scale - SRRS Evaluation of the SRRS Individual Difference: The SRRS assumes that each stressor affects people the same way. Not necessarily true e.g. divorce can be amicable or even a relief. Most

The immune system is a collection of billions of cells that travel through the bloodstream.  They move in and out of tissues and organs, defending the body against foreign bodies (antigens), such as bacteria, viruses and cancerous cells. There are two types of lymphocytes : B cells - produce antibodies which are released into the fluid surrounding the body’s cells to destroy the invading viruses and bacteria. T cells (see picture opposite) - if the invader gets inside a cell, these (T cells) lock on to the infected cell, multiply and destroy it. The main types of immune cells are white blood cells. There are two types of white blood cells – lymphocytes and phagocytes. When we’re stressed, the immune system’s ability to fight off antigens is reduced. That is why we are more susceptible to infections. The stress hormone corticosteroid can suppress the effectiveness of the immune system (

Stress is a biological and psychological response experienced on encountering a threat that we feel we do not have the resources to deal with. A stressor is the stimulus (or threat) that causes stress, e.g. exam, divorce, death of loved one, moving house, loss of job. Sudden and severe stress generally produces Increase in heart rate Increase in breathing (lungs dilate) Decrease in digestive activity (don’t feel hungry) Liver released glucose for energy Firstly, our body judges a situation and decides whether or not it is stressful. This decision is made based on sensory input and processing (i.e. the things we see and hear in the situation) and also on stored memories (i.e. what happened the last time we were in a similar situation). If the situation is judged as being stressful, the HYPOTHALAMUS (at the base of the brain) is activated. The hypothalamus in the brain is in charge

Perhaps the most straightforward way of finding out about someone’s attitudes would be to ask them. However, attitudes are related to self-image and social acceptance (i.e. attitude functions). In order to preserve a positive self-image, people’s responses may be affected by social desirability. They may not well tell about their true attitudes, but answer in a way that they feel socially acceptable. Given this problem, various methods of measuring attitudes have been developed.  However, all of them have limitations.  In particular the different measures focus on different components of attitudes – cognitive, affective and behavioral – and as we know, these components do not necessarily coincide. Attitude measurement can be divided into two basic categories Direct Measurement ( likert scale and semantic differential) Indirect Measurement (projective techniques) Semantic Differential